Priority Habitat Management Guidelines
NOTE: Participants who do not follow the planned management activities outlined in their agreement will be subject to the repayment provision in the WCLP statute. For this reason, landowners are cautioned not to sign up for management practices that are incompatible with their capabilities or management philosophies. Wildlife Commission staff are available to discuss management options and help select the most useful and appropriate practices to benefit early succession wildlife habitat.
Information concerning this and other priority habitat types can be found in the North Carolina Wildlife Action Plan (NCWAP).
Bat Caves
Caves are mainly found scattered across the Southern Blue Ridge physiographic province, although some do occur in other regions of the state. While there are several different types of caves, the most common types found in North Carolina are solution caves, fissure caves, rock shelter and boulder caves.
These types of caves differ primarily in the way they are formed. Solution caves are created by the action of water, dissolving the underlying rock to form tunnels. Fissure caves are formed by movement of the earth’s surface that results in cracks of the rock layers. Rock shelter and boulder caves are formed by erosive forces, weather events, earth surface movements and other factors, which essentially leave spaces underneath or behind surface rock. Most caves in North Carolina are rock shelter or boulder caves.
In addition to natural caves, extensive mining in North Carolina has resulted in numerous manmade subterranean excavations that also function as bat caves. The Wildlife Conservation Land Program (WCLP) allows manmade subterranean excavations to be considered bat cave habitat when conditions inside the mine shafts and tunnels mimic natural caves and provide suitable structure for bat inhabitation.
Caves may be used by 11 species of bats in North Carolina for hibernation, birthing and raising of pups and roosting, while other caves may not be used by bats at all. To be considered bat cave habitat under WCLP, the cave must have documented use by aggregations of bats.
The volume of air, temperature and relative humidity are important factors influencing the use of caves by bats. Surface conditions sur- rounding cave entrances can have significant effects upon those conditions.
Land use in the immediate vicinity of cave entrances can affect air flow through the cave and foraging conditions for resident bats.
Changes to adjacent vegetation can impact the microclimate of the cave, rendering it unsuitable for bats habitation. For all these rea- sons qualifying bat cave habitat must include a buffer which encompasses the cave, all its entrances and suitable area necessary to sustain the temperature, air flow, humidity and foraging conditions needed to maintain the bat population.
Any cave or mine enrolled in the Wildlife Conservation Land Program, must have documented use by an aggregation of bats in order to be considered bat cave habitat.
Landowners with caves or mines on their property will need to have the sites surveyed by a private contractor who is qualified to ascertain whether or not bats are using their tract. Most cave bats spend the winter hibernating in caves or mines. Some species of cave bats reside in caves year-round, although different caves may be used during summer and winter. Other cave bats prefer to roost in trees or structures during summer. Summer “maternity” colonies of pregnant or nursing females will use caves or mines to raise their young.
The two major threats to bat cave habitat are recreational impacts and development. Activities associated with recreational caving and exploration can easily disrupt the normal behavior patterns of wildlife using the resource and may also result in negative changes to habitat conditions for the cave dwelling animals. Human entry into caves may introduce the fungus that causes White-Nose Syndrome. This dis- ease has caused significant mortality in bat populations across western North Carolina.
Human disturbance to hibernation and maternity colonies can be very harmful to bat populations. Bats aroused from hibernation expend critical energy needed to survive until spring. If aroused from hibernation often, they may ultimately starve to death or experience declined body condition which may impact reproductive success. Disturbance to summer maternity colonies can result in baby bats being dropped to their deaths or abandoned by panicked adults.
Once documented populations are confirmed on a tract, landowners must be willing to institute appropriate restrictions upon use of the sites to prevent both direct impacts (e.g., repeated disturbance during bat hibernation), as well as indirect impacts (e.g., habitat changes that make microhabitat conditions inside the cave or mine unsuitable). This can entail permanent closure of the cave or mine to ensure the habitat is protected. At least three caves and two mine complexes in North Carolina currently have bat friendly gates installed to prohibit or regulate human entry. These exclusion devices reduce habitat disturbance and the subsequent impacts upon cave conditions.
A buffer of sufficient width will also be needed to minimize negative impacts to the site and its wildlife. Barring special circumstances, the maximum buffer for any bat cave will be 600 feet. A wildlife biologist can assist with delineating the area to be protected.
Conservation easements are strongly encouraged to help protect these sites from long-term impacts such
as residential development.
Information concerning this and other priority habitat types can be found in the North Carolina Wildlife Action Plan (NCWAP).
Early Successional Habitat
For this program, early successional habitat can be defined as a plant community dominated by native herbaceous species. These plant communities require frequent disturbance to suppress tree growth and promote native plant diversity.
To qualify as early successional habitat in the Wildlife Conservation Land Program (WCLP) land must be managed with periodic disturbances such as disking, mowing, burning and/or herbicide treatments to maintain the desired condition. Common types of early successional habitat include abandoned fields, recent clearcuts, field borders, savannas, prairies and meadows. Site specific prescriptions will ensure appropriate management, but in most situations some form of disturbance will be required every 2 to 4 years.
Early successional habitat can be comprised of grasses, legumes, wildflowers, vines, shrubs and saplings. Small patches of vines, briars, shrubs and saplings contribute to habitat value, but woody vegetation should not cover more than 20% of the early successional acreage. To qualify for the WCLP, at least 50% of the ground cover must consist of native grasses and forbs (herbaceous, broadleaf flowering plants) that benefit wildlife. Non-native, turf forming grasses such as tall fescue, Bermudagrass, and orchardgrass provide little wildlife value and must be controlled in the WCLP enrolled acreage. Native grasses such as switchgrass, little bluestem, and broomstraw grow in clumps, providing greater habitat value. Qualifying savannas must be maintained at a basal area of 50 square feet per acre or lower.
While pastures, hayland, crop fields, lawns and golf courses are dominated by herbaceous plants, they do not offer the structural or native plant diversity needed to meet the intent of the WCLP.
The North Carolina Wildlife Action Plan identifies 49 Species of Greatest Conservation Need associated with early successional habitat. More commonly known species which utilize early successional habitats include Northern bobwhite quail, cottontail rabbits, whip-poor-wills, Eastern meadowlark, indigo bunting, blue grosbeak and many species of beneficial insects.
Mountain balds, Piedmont prairies, and coastal pine savannas are examples of early successional habitats that have become very rare in North Carolina. These habitats are a high priority for inclusion in the WCLP and landowners are strongly encouraged to permanently protect these sites through conservation easements.
The WCLP will consider other types of open land such as abandoned pastures, meadows and old fields as long as they are managed for a diversity of grasses and forbs native to the eco-region. Forest stands and recent clearcuts may qualify for the WCLP if the landowner is willing to manage these areas to maximize wildlife benefits rather than financial return from timber products. Stands with tree cover must be maintained at a basal area of 50 square feet per acre or less and the understory must be composed of at least 50% native grasses or forbs.
Without periodic disturbance open land will revert to forest. All acreage enrolled in the WCLP as early successional habitat will require active management. Management practices that mimic natural disturbance regimes are preferred. Most if not all qualifying early successional habitats across North Carolina will respond favorably to prescribed fire. Landowners are encouraged to integrate prescribed burning into their early succession management regime, on a two- or three-year rotation, if at all possible.
When and where burning is not a feasible option, woody vegetation can be controlled with selective herbicide applications. Herbicide treatments are more expensive and less selective than prescribed burning for woody plant control, but are often required to successfully manage non-native species and aggressive woody growth. Herbicide prescriptions should be developed by a licensed North Carolina Pesticide Applicator to address a clearly defined management objective. Herbicides and surfactants applied for habitat management should be of low toxicity to wildlife, be as selective for target species as practical and must be applied according to instructions on the product label.
Mechanical methods may suffice if no other means of disturbance are available to the landowner. Using an offset disk pulled by a farm tractor to disturb early successional areas every two or three years will control most woody vegetation and stimulate a variety of annual and perennial plants that benefit wild- life. It is important to note disturbance will likely promote undesirable plant species as well and additional actions will be needed to improve plant composition. Disking should be conducted in fall to early spring (November through early April) to avoid interfering with nesting and brooding activities. Leaving portions of the cover undisturbed will further diversify the habitat and maintain some overwintering cover. In some instances, controlled grazing by livestock can be used as an appropriate disturbance.
Mowing is the least preferred method for managing early succession. Mowing generally encourages perennial grass over forbs, promotes woody sprouts and will limit habitat diversity over time.
Long Leaf Pine Forest
Seven distinct longleaf pine plant communities have been identified in North Carolina: xeric sandhill scrub, pine/scrub oak sandhill, mesic pine flatwoods, wet pine flatwoods, coastal fringe sandhill, pine savanna and piedmont longleaf forest. Longleaf pine communities once covered 91 million acres across the Southeast but now occupy less than 3 million acres of its original range. Most of the loss of this habitat type is due to development, conversion of forested sites to agriculture, fire suppression and regeneration to faster-growing species such as loblolly pine. Even where longleaf pine forests still exist, they are often in a degraded ecological condition that does not provide high-quality habitats for wildlife.
Plant species in longleaf forests vary by community type, but the understory of all naturally functioning longleaf stands are dominated by native grasses and forbs (broadleaf flowering plants). Ground cover in a longleaf ecosystem is more important than the percentage of longleaf pines in the overstory.
Longleaf forests are most often associated with the Sandhills or Coastal Plain regions of North Carolina. However, there are significant longleaf restoration efforts underway throughout its native range, which includes portions of the Eastern Piedmont.
The North Carolina Wildlife Action Plan identifies 35 priority wildlife species associated with longleaf forests. Better-known species include Northern bobwhite quail, brown-headed nuthatch, Eastern coach whip, fox squirrel and red-cockaded woodpecker.
Active management with prescribed burning, herbicide application, and/or mechanical treatment is necessary to maintain the plant communities required to qualify a longleaf stand as wildlife conservation land.
Raking pine straw in a longleaf stand degrades the ground cover and reduces the wildlife value of the stand. Raked stands should not be considered as functioning longleaf forests for the purposes of the Wildlife Conservation Land Program.
The following items should be considerations for longleaf pine stands enrolled in the WCLP:
Mixed pine stands are acceptable if longleaf exists as an overstory component and management is used to promote longleaf regeneration and maintain suitable ground cover.
Mixed pine/hardwood stands, with a longleaf component, are eligible if actions are taken to reduce hard- wood competition. Excessive shading caused by high hardwood density can be detrimental to groundcover. Maintaining some mast-producing hardwoods is acceptable and beneficial for longleaf associated wildlife species. The percentage of trees in the midstory and overstory can vary in a qualifying stand as long as sunlight reaches the forest floor and management is used to maintain suitable ground cover.
The current condition of a longleaf pine stand will dictate the management needed to promote a desirable understory. Where stands are devoid of ground cover, the natural understory should be allowed to recover, or native seed mixtures can be planted to enhance habitat. Stands that are degraded by heavy hardwood competition will require a combination of mechanical and chemical treatments to restore eco- logical function. Larger trees will be removed with a chainsaw or brushsaw (string trimmer with a blade).
Smaller trees can be controlled with selective herbicide treatments. Prescribed burning will be required to control woody species and encourage native grasses and forbs, which are critical to the function of the longleaf ecosystem.
The WCLP allows landowners to manage mature longleaf stands without a commercial production requirement. Longleaf pine is a long-lived species that can reach 200 years of age or more. Older trees of- ten develop heart-rot, which allows the endangered red-cockaded woodpecker (RCW) to excavate nesting cavities. These cavities can be utilized by other species of birds, mammals and insects. The Safe Harbor Program offers regulatory assurances for landowners who manage their property to benefit the RCW. Conservation easements are strongly encouraged to help protect this unique habitat type and the rare species dependent on this habitat.
Restoration of longleaf pine communities will also qualify for the WCLP. New stands can be established with 300 to 450 trees per acre but must be managed to protect plant diversity during site preparation.
Prescribed burning plays a critical role in the management of the longleaf ecosystem. Young longleaf pine stands should be burned while a majority of the trees are in the “grass stage,” usually within 12 to 24 months after planting. This early burn will reduce woody competition and disease while promoting desirable herbaceous vegetation. Once longleaf seedlings come out of the grass stage, burning should be delayed until most of the trees are at least 5 feet tall. This delay will improve sapling survival during the stage of initial height growth.
Timber harvest is acceptable when needed to enhance ground cover and perpetuate longleaf in the stand. Harvests may include removal of longleaf to reduce canopy density or removal of non-longleaf to allow natural or artificial regeneration of longleaf seedlings.
Information concerning this and other priority habitat types can be found in the North Carolina Wildlife Action Plan (NCWAP).
Rock Outcrops
Rock outcrop habitats are comprised of numerous distinct ecological community types described in the North Carolina Wildlife Action Plan (NCWAP). These community types include boulderfields, rocky summits, granitic domes, acidic cliffs, mafic cliffs, granitic flatrocks, and talus slopes. High-elevation rock outcrops occur only in the highest mountain ranges within the Southern Blue Ridge eco- region. Low-elevation rock outcrops are found in the Southern Blue Ridge, but also in some areas of the piedmont eco-region.
In general, rock outcrops are often characterized as open canopy communities with patchy vegetation due to variability in soil depth and moisture content; however, specific rock outcrop habitats can occur within a forested setting (e.g., boulderfields within northern hardwood forests or small rock outcrops within any forest habitat).
Lichens and mosses occur on bare rock and other vegetation may develop in deep moss mats or crevices (oatgrass species, sedges and mountain dandelion). Woody plants or trees such as mountain laurel, Catawba rhododendron, table mountain pine, red spruce, various oaks and yellow birch may occur in the deepest soil mats, rock crevices and at the edge of these habitats.
Water seepage through rock crevices may provide moisture for amphibians, mosses, lichens and wetland vegetation. Regardless of ecological classification, rock dominates the surface of the land.
Many wildlife species utilize rock outcrop habitat without regard to elevation (e.g., peregrine falcon), whereas others will utilize only high-elevation rock outcrop habitats (e.g., rock voles and rock shrews). However, many species of wildlife and plant species are associated with both high- and low-elevation rock outcrop communities. The elevation limits for each species are quite variable.
The conditions present at individual rock outcrops are unique, de- pending on geology, geography, elevation, moisture and landscape position. They may contain discreet communities, or they may be dispersed among a variety of other community types that are connected through local geology and landscape conditions.
As such, the extent of habitat that each rock outcrop provides is dependent upon the entire set of condi- tions in and surrounding the surface rock. Those conditions influence its use by plants and animals de- pendent upon the surface rock and may include significant amounts of the adjacent ecological community.
High-elevation rock outcrops are extremely rare, have a very restricted range, and are subject to extreme environmental conditions. Each site can have a somewhat unique set of problems particular to it, rang- ing from almost no impact to a high degree of impact. Common threats across the range of high-elevation rock outcrops include recreation, development, and forest succession.
The two major impacts often associated with low-elevation rock outcrops are development and recreation. However, low-elevation rock outcrops are typically more susceptible to damage during forestry har- vest operations and conversion of adjacent vegetation to monoculture forests than high elevation rock outcrops due to land ownership patterns, proximity to markets, accessibility, and other factors.
While this habitat type appears simple, many factors intermingle to shape this ecosystem. The complexity of this habitat type cannot be easily recreated. To conserve these unique areas, and the animal species which require them, it is vital to accurately identify them and work with private landowners to protect and buffer these natural features.
Under the WCLP, landowners with both high- and low-elevation rock outcrops must be willing to institute appropriate restrictions upon use of the areas to minimize the direct impact upon the habitat and associated wildlife. This entails closure of sensitive areas at certain times or permanently to stop direct (trampling, loss of habitat to recreation developments - trails, vistas, etc.) and indirect human impacts (disturbance).
Maintenance of biologically significant areas, including peregrine falcon nesting areas, reptile den sites and significant salamander occurrences may require active management of outcrops to reduce intrusion by alder, rhododendron and other woody species, which contributes to the disappearance of some vertebrates. Use of hand tools to manually cut down encroaching woody vegetation is the preferred method to sustain vegetation diversity. Very targeted herbicide applications can be used on persistent woody and non-native plant species. Herbicides, surfactants and treatment methodology used for habitat manage- ment should be of low toxicity to wildlife, be as selective for target species as practical and must be ap- plied according to the instructions on the product label.
A buffer of sufficient width will be needed to minimize negative impacts to the site and the wildlife that require this unique habitat type. Barring special circumstances, the maximum buffer for any rock outcropping will be 600 feet. A resource professional can assist with delineating the appropriate buffer.
Conservation easements are strongly encouraged to help permanently protect these sites.
Information concerning this and other priority habitat types can be found in the North Carolina Wildlife Action Plan (NCWAP).
Small Wetland Communities
Small wetland communities can include vernal pools, seeps, small depression ponds, ephemeral wetlands, beaver ponds, small depression pocosins, interdune ponds, clay-based Carolina bays, limesink depressions, bogs and associated wetlands.
All wetland communities are associated with hydric (saturated) soils, hydrophilic (moisture-loving) vegetation and the presence of water on the surface of the land for at least some portion of the year. However, each type of wetland is unique and may vary greatly in structure and vegetative composition as well as timing and extent of aquatic inundation. Many of these communities are found only in a specific geographical region of the state.
By definition, these wetlands are small in size, but may be extremely important in wildlife value and benefit. The wildlife that utilize these wetlands also rely heavily on the adjacent upland habitat as well. The evaluation of each small wetland community should therefore consider not only the area representing the wetland, but also the surrounding area of influence associated with the wetland.
Threats to the Resource
From the coast to the mountains, wildlife species that depend on small wetland communities can be negatively impacted by human activity in many ways.
Direct habitat loss is caused when wetlands are drained for agriculture or development. Indirect loss can occur from factors associated with land use changes within the area of influence.
Water quality problems can occur from stormwater runoff and pollution from point and non-point sources (lawn chemicals, oils from road surfaces, agricultural and forestry pesticides). Hydrological changes, including excessive drying or wetting of a site, can occur when timber is harvested too close to a wetland or ditches are cut through wetlands.
Each type of qualifying small wetland community may have its own set of problems that pose risks to the habitat and its wildlife. Landowners interested in enrolling in the WCLP will need to obtain a site evaluation from a qualified professional. Once an assessment has been completed, specific recommendations can be developed to protect and/or restore the wetland.
If deemed necessary, wetland restoration efforts should focus on restoring the natural hydrology, water quality and plant communities of degraded wetlands. Technical expertise and cost-share funding may be available from various agencies to assist with restoration efforts. Newly created wetlands will also be considered under the WCLP.
Active management may be required periodically to restore the open nature of some small wetland com- munities; for example, the use of fire in coastal wetlands or the use of a hand crew to manually cut down encroaching woody vegetation with chainsaws or brush blades in mountain bogs. Any use of approved herbicides and surfactants must be of low toxicity to aquatic wildlife.
Management of small wetland communities can be somewhat complex. In some instances, disturbance within or adjacent to the wetland reduces the value of the area for wildlife and negatively impacts the wetland system. In other situations, disturbance is needed to maintain the desired stage of vegetation. Management prescriptions must take the buffer around the wetland into consideration to ensure continued viability of the wetland community. Barring special situations, the maximum buffer surrounding a wetland will be 600 feet. WCLP participants must be willing to institute prescribed management within the buffer acreage. Information related to buffer conservation is available from the Wildlife Commission. Conservation easements are strongly encouraged to help permanently protect remaining wetlands.
Information concerning this and other priority habitat types can be found in the North Carolina Wildlife Action Plan (NCWAP).
Stream and Riparian Zones
Stream and Riparian Zone (SRZ) habitat is defined as a perennial or intermittent flowing body of water and the land adjacent to it. The riparian zone generally extends from the water’s edge at base flow, not including storm runoff, to the place where the stream does not influence the vegetation type or density. Generally, this somewhat obscure boundary is where the upland ecological community begins.
The SRZ encompasses the stream banks, floodplain and their plant communities, as well as plant material (natural debris such as grass, leaves, twigs, branches and trees) which will likely enter the stream.
Desirable riparian zones include stream banks that are not eroding and diverse native plant communities that are generally undisturbed.
SRZ habitat, as designated by the Wildlife Conservation Land Program (WCLP), refers to fluvial aquatic communities, floodplain forests and aquatic river basins in all three of the eco-regions in North Carolina. These vital habitats are identified as a priority in the North Carolina Wildlife Action Plan. SRZ habitat is critically important to a wide range of terrestrial, aquatic and semi-aquatic species.
Threats to the Resource
Land use adjacent to these aquatic systems contributes significantly to the quality and quantity of wildlife habitat within the watershed.
Clean water is critical to a host of species that utilize rivers and streams for some or all of their life cycle. In addition to direct habitat loss from land use conversion and development, water quality degradation and habitat deterioration can seriously impact the wild- life utilizing stream and riparian habitats.
Water quality can be negatively impacted by nutrients, chemicals or sediment. Direct input of contaminants may occur when runoff from poorly managed agriculture operations, commercial development, residential building sites and various non-point sources are allowed to enter waterways. The resulting water pollution can kill aquatic species and contaminate the food chain.
Increased sediment loads from land disturbance can damage the integrity of aquatic systems. In addition, fragmentation and loss of diverse habitat in forested riparian buffers pose a significant challenge to priority species such as neotropical migratory birds that nest in floodplain forests.
Perennial or intermittent streams qualify for enrollment in WCLP as SRZ. While United States Geological Survey topographic maps and LIDAR data may be used to identify qualifying waterways, ground truthing of location and stream condition is required. Ephemeral streams, springs and seeps will be considered on a case-by-case basis and may better qualify for WCLP as Small Wetland Communities.
Specific site conditions should be considered when developing management prescriptions for SRZ. Under the WCLP, riparian areas will be delineated by measuring horizontally from the top of the stream bank. The minimum buffer width shall be 15 feet on each side of the stream; and the maximum width may be up to 300 feet on each side of the stream or the width of the floodplain, whichever is greater. The riparian buffer for a given stream shall not extend beyond the watershed boundary as delineated by the topography surrounding the qualifying waterbody. In very limited situations, site conditions may justify a narrower minimum buffer width dependent on property boundary, road restrictions, and/or other permanent features. All Wildlife Habitat Conservation Agreements should encourage participants to maximize wildlife benefits by enrolling SRZ buffers which are wider than 30 feet.
Stable riparian zones contain stream banks that are not eroding and have vegetation that has not been disturbed within the last three years. Stream bank vegetation must be retained to prevent sloughing and erosion. When adjacent to grazing lands, livestock must be excluded from the riparian zone with permanent fencing. Funding may be available from various agencies to assist with exclusion fencing.
Vegetated buffers can help mitigate or reduce impacts from pollution and sedimentation in North Carolina’s waterways. Ideally, riparian zones will contain a diverse native plant community composed of trees, shrubs, vines, grasses, sedges and other herbaceous plants, as well as coarse woody debris such as root wads and downed logs. Structural diversity within riparian buffers is especially important for neotropical birds and amphibians using these areas.
Non-native plants can dramatically reduce structural and compositional diversity of native plant com- munities. Control of exotic plants may be required to meet the intent of this classification. Areas where infestations of exotic plants cover more than 15% of the riparian area or where invasive control is not feasible may not qualify as SRZ. Herbicide application methodology and chemical formulations used for SRZ management must be of low toxicity to wildlife, be as selective for target species as practical and must be applied according to instructions on the product label.
Restoration activities may be warranted if the site is badly degraded. An assessment can be completed by a resource professional and recommendations developed to restore hydrology and/or native plant communities within the SRZ if deemed necessary.
Information concerning this and other priority habitat types can be found in the North Carolina Wildlife Action Plan (NCWAP).